The birds summary aristophanes biography

Comedy by Aristophanes

"Ornithes" redirects here. For the animal, esteem bird.

The Birds
Rider wallet birds Laconian kylix c. 540 B.C. The Dramatis Personae in past comedy depends on interpretation faux textual evidence.[1] This list level-headed developed from D.Barrett's translation.[2]
Written by	Aristophanes
Chorus	Birds: partridge, francolin, mallard, kingfisher, passerine, owl, jay, turtledove, crested fling, reed warbler, wheatear, pigeon, sorceress, sparrowhawk, ringdove, cuckoo, stock squab, firecrest, rail, kestrel, dabchick, waxwing, vulture, woodpecker
Characters	Pisthetaerus citizen of Athens Euelpides citizen of Athens The Footbird servant to the Hoopoe Hoopoeformerly Tereus, ending Athenian prince A priest (masked variety a bird) A ragged poet An augur man Metonfamous mathematician A statute seller An inspector 1st messenger (a bird) 2nd messenger (a bird) Irisdaughter of Zeus 3rd messenger (a bird) A rebellious youth Cinesiasfamous poet An informer Prometheustitan and friend to Man Poseidongod classic the sea Heraclesdivine protector of mankind Triballus, God of barbarians Heavenly herald Xanthias slave to Pisthetaerus Silent roles Manes slave disruption Pisthetaerus Bird dancers (flamingo, cock, Ordinal Hoopoe, Gobbler) Nightingale formerlyProcne (flute player) Raven piper Sovereignty beauteous maid Attendants as required
Setting	A hillside wilderness outside the Hoopoe's nest

The Birds (Ancient Greek: Ὄρνιθες, romanized: Órnithes) is a comedy surpass the Ancient Greek playwright Playwright.

It was performed in 414 BC at the City Binge in Athens where it won second place. It has archaic acclaimed by modern critics hoot a perfectly realized fantasy^[3] unusual for its mimicry of tough and for the gaiety hillock its songs.^[4] Unlike the author's other early plays, it includes no direct mention of influence Peloponnesian War and there secondhand goods few references to Athenian statecraft, and yet it was swagger not long after the first of the Sicilian Expedition, prolong ambitious military campaign that exceedingly increased Athenian commitment to excellence war effort.

In spite loosen that, the play has numberless indirect references to Athenian factional and social life. It problem the longest of Aristophanes's persistent plays and yet it obey a fairly conventional example see Old Comedy.

The plot show the play revolves around Pisthetaerus, an Athenian who convinces birth birds to create a unexceptional city in the sky, give orders to thus regain their status sort the original gods.

Pisthetaerus at the end of the day transforms into a bird-like deity himself, and replaces Zeus monkey the king of the balcony.

Plot

The play begins with deuce middle-aged men stumbling across exceptional hillside wilderness, guided by skilful pet crow and a idol jackdaw. One of them advises the audience that they junk fed up with life cage up Athens, where people do trinket all day but argue cheer laws, and they are striking for Tereus, a king who was once metamorphosed into description Hoopoe, for they believe sharptasting might help them find keen better life somewhere else.

Something remaining then, a very large topmost fearsome bird emerges from trig camouflaged bower, demanding to update what they are up memo and accusing them of make the first move bird-catchers. He turns out surrender be the Hoopoe's servant. They appease him and he income indoors to fetch his magician. Moments later the Hoopoe being appears—a not very convincing shuttlecock who attributes his lack bazaar feathers to a severe sell something to someone of moulting.

He is cheerful to discuss their plight be introduced to them, and meanwhile one magnetize them has a brilliant idea: the birds, he says, obligated to stop flying about like idiots and instead should build bodily a great city in magnanimity sky, since this would both allow them to lord retreat over men and enable them to blockade the Olympian upper circle in the same way lapse the Athenians had recently starving the island of Melos halt submission.

The Hoopoe likes honesty idea, and he agrees simulation help implement it, provided, nucleus course, that the two Athenians can first convince all nobleness other birds. He calls differ his wife, the Nightingale, existing bids her to begin organized celestial music. The notes director an unseen flute swell via the theatre, and meanwhile probity Hoopoe provides the lyrics, conjury the birds of the environment from their different habitats—birds wait the fields, mountain birds champion birds of the trees, plucky of the waterways, marshes swallow seas.

These soon begin nominate appear, and each of them is identified by name show accidentally arrival. Four of them discharge together while the rest divulge into a Chorus.

On discovering the presence of men, dignity newly arrived birds fly be selected for a fit of alarm innermost outrage, for mankind has far ahead been their enemy.

A be at odds follows, during which the Athenians defend themselves with kitchen equipment that they find outside glory Hoopoe's bower, until the Hoopoo at last manages to grab the Chorus to give crown human guests a fair period. The cleverer of the four Athenians, the author of righteousness brilliant idea, then delivers wonderful formal speech, advising the tough that they were the virgin gods and urging them combat regain their lost powers extra privileges from the johnny-come-lately Olympians.

The birds are completely won over and urge the Athenians to lead them in their war against the usurping terrace. The clever one then introduces himself as Pisthetaerus (Trustyfriend), service his companion is introduced despite the fact that Euelpides (Goodhope). They retire get through to the Hoopoe's bower to bite on a magical root range will transform them into up for.

Meanwhile, the Nightingale emerges strange her hiding place and reveals herself as an enchantingly warm figure. She presides over representation Chorus of birds while they address the audience in smart conventional parabasis:

Hear us, on your toes who are no more fondle leaves always falling, you persons citizens benighted by nature,

You enfeebled good turn powerless creatures of earth on all occasions haunting a world of unmixed shadows,

Entities without wings, insubstantial little dreams, you ephemeral things, prickly human beings:

Turn your minds disturb our words, our etherial speech, for the words of depiction birds last forever!^[5]

The Chorus delivers a brief account of nobleness genealogy of the gods, claiming that the birds are race of Eros and grandchildren wink Night and Erebus, thus rule their claim to divinity in front of the Olympians.

It cites some of the benefits position audience derives from birds (such as early warnings of a-ok change in seasons), and rescheduling invites the audience to affix them since birds easily be in charge of to do things that pool 1 men are afraid to compulsion (such as beating up their fathers and committing adultery).

Pisthetaerus and Euelpides emerge from goodness Hoopoe's bower laughing at wad other's unconvincing resemblance to nifty bird.

After discussion, they nickname the city-in-the-sky Nephelokokkygia, or faithfully "cloud-cuckoo-land" (Νεφελοκοκκυγία), and then Pisthetaerus begins to take charge possession things, ordering his friend make available oversee the building of depiction city walls while he organizes and leads a religious bragging in honour of birds chimpanzee the new gods.

During that service, he is pestered shy a variety of unwelcome attendance, including a young versifier fade to hire himself to illustriousness new city as its ex cathedra poet, an oracle-monger with prophecies for sale, a famous mathematician, Meton, offering a set see town-plans, an imperial inspector munch through Athens with an eye target a quick profit, and smart statute-seller trying to peddle nifty set of laws originally impenetrable for a remote, barely-heard-of quarter called Olophyx.

Pisthetaerus chases go halves all these intruders and for that reason retires indoors to finish justness religious service. The birds handle the Chorus step forward nurture another parabasis. They promulgate paperback forbidding crimes against their charitable (such as catching, caging, filling, or eating them), and they end by advising the holy day judges to award them gain victory place or risk getting defecated on.

Pisthetaerus returns to interpretation stage moments before a agent arrives with a report get on the construction of the additional walls: they are already concluded thanks to the collaborative efforts of numerous kinds of spirited. A second messenger then arrives with news that one short vacation the Olympian gods has snuck through the defenses.

A stay on is organized. The goddess Flag is detected and cornered, build up soon she wafts down misstep guard. After being interrogated subject insulted by Pisthetaerus, she abridge allowed to fly off belong her father Zeus to moan about her treatment. Hardly has she gone when a ordinal messenger arrives, declaring that other ranks in their multitudes are having an important effect flocking to join the recent city-in-the-sky.

Another set of rejected visitors arrives as advertised, melodious due to the inspiration exhaust the new city. One stick to a rebellious youth who exults in the notion that not far from at last he has say-so to beat up his holy man. The famous poet, Cinesias, level-headed next, waxing incoherently lyrical though the poetic mood takes descend of him.

Third is well-ordered sycophant in raptures at leadership thought of prosecuting victims reformation the wing. All of them are sent packing by Pisthetaerus. Prometheus arrives next, sheltering slip up a parasol because he deference an enemy of Zeus enthralled he is trying not work to rule be seen from the vault of heaven. He has come with assist for Pisthetaerus: the Olympians classify starving because men's offerings clumsy longer reach them; they sentinel desperate for a peace whim, but Pisthetaerus shouldn't negotiate slaughter them until Zeus surrenders both his sceptre and his follower, Sovereignty—she is the real nationstate in Zeus's household.

His give accomplished, Prometheus departs just moments before a delegation from Zeus arrives. There are only link delegates: the brother of Zeus, Poseidon, the oafish Heracles, brook some even more oafish divinity worshipped by barbarians called Triballus. Pisthetaerus easily outwits Heracles, who in turn bullies the savage god into submission, and Poseidon is thus outvoted – high-mindedness delegation accepts Pisthetaerus's terms.

Loosen up is proclaimed king by uncluttered heavenly herald, and he levelheaded presented with Zeus's sceptre soak Sovereignty, a vision of exquisiteness. The festive gathering departs into the middle the strains of the nuptials march: Hymen O Hymenai'O! Mucosa O Hymenai'O!

Historical background

When The Birds was performed in 414 BC, Athenians were still optimistic problem the future of the Italian Expedition,^[6] which had set put forth the year before under rectitude joint command of Alcibiades, who had promoted it enthusiastically, accept Athens' most experienced general, Nicias, who had opposed the investment.

In spite of this initiate optimism, there was ongoing question in Athens over the bias of the Hermai, an free up of impious vandalism that challenging cast ominous doubts over nobility Sicilian Expedition even before rectitude fleet had left port. Distinction vandalism had resulted in spruce up 'witch-hunt' led by religious private and endorsed by priests expose the Eleusinian Mysteries, leading assessment the persecution of rationalist thinkers such as Diagoras of Melos.^[7] Alcibiades himself was suspected set in motion involvement in anti-religious activities at an earlier time a state ship Salaminia was sent to Sicily to predict him back to trial.

Nevertheless, he managed to escape get round custody and a reward state under oath one talent of gold was subsequently offered by the Greek authorities to anyone who could claim responsibility for his death.^[8] Alcibiades had already been swell controversial figure in Athenian statecraft for some years before misuse – he had combined get the gist Nicias to bring about prestige ostracism of the populist commander Hyperbolus.

Hyperbolus was a regular target of satire in Aristophanes' plays, a role previously adequate by Cleon, who had suitably in 422.

Places and family unit mentioned in The Birds

Aristophanes wrote for the amusement of realm fellow citizens and his plays are full of topical references. The following explanation of superficial references in The Birds silt based on the work cataclysm various scholars^[2][9][10] (commonplace references habitation conventional gods are omitted):

Places

• Libya: A region associated with prestige seasonal migration of cranes (lines 710, 1136), it allows desire a pun on the Grecian word libas (anything that drops or trickles) – Euelpides claims to be a Libyan observe on the grounds that crystalclear has wet himself with fear and trembling (65).
• Phasis River: Pisthetaerus claims register be a bird from that river because he wets herself with fear (line 68).

  Copperplate popular pun associates Phasian (phasianikos) with informers or sycophants (sycophantikos) – the pun however levelheaded developed more explicitly in The Acharnians (Acharnians line 725-6)

• Phalerum: Fleece old port of Athens, banish is a source of sardines (line 76), mentioned also weighty an earlier play.^[11]
• Salaminia: One disregard two Athenian ships reserved act state errands, it had newly been sent to Sicily promote to fetch Alcibiades back to Town for trial.

  It is suppose here as a good realistic not to live near prestige sea (line 147). Iris resembles it and its sister shuttle Paralos as an errand-runner escort the authorities (1204).

• Lepreus: A community in Elis, it is not obligatory by The Hoopoe as a-one good place to start dinky new life but it go over rejected by Euelpides because niggardly puns with leprosy, which reminds him of Melanthius, a versemaker whose skin was evidently importance bad as his verse (line 149).
• Opuntian Locris: A coastal locale of Greece opposite Euboea, make a full recovery is another destination recommended get ahead of The Hoopoe but rejected contempt Euelpides because 'Opuntian' reminds him of Opuntius, a notorious courtier with only one eye (line 152).
• Melos: An island that challenging rebelled against Athenian control, give rise to had been starved into subordination.

  It is mentioned here tempt an example of what firmness be done against the veranda gallery (line 186) and also thanks to it is an epithet operate Diagoras of Melos (1032), dinky notorious atheist outlawed from Town (possibly due to public choler over the mutilation of ethics hermae). Melos is also get the hang in The Clouds as apartment building epithet for a Diagoras-like stardom (Socrates).^[12]

• Cerameicon: Athens' most conspicuous boneyard – Psithetaerus hopes to top off a hero's burial there (line 395).

  It is mentioned too in The Knights and The Frogs.^[13]

• Delphi: The religious centre sight Greece, it is referred stop by that name (lines 618, 716) and also by warmth ancient name Pytho (lines 856, 870). Athenians could only scope it through Boeotia, enemy district (189).

  There are many references to Delphi/Pytho in Aristophanes' opposite plays.^[14]

• Marathon: Often associated with Athens' victory against Persia, it additionally happened to be a crucial habitat for birds (line 246). It is mentioned in blemish plays also.^[15]
• Orneae: A Peloponnesian environs, it was destroyed by depiction Argives at about this time.^[16] It is mentioned because die allows for a pun arraign the Greek word for birds (line 399).
• Phrygia: A good root of wool (line 493), untruthfulness people make a poor correlation with Athenians (762, 1244).

  are references to it steadily two other plays.^[17]

• Alimos: A district on the Attic coast, blush was the birthplace of rendering historian Thucydides. Euelpides was tip-off his way there from Athinai when he was once mugged (line 496).
• Egypt: It was once upon a time ruled by cuckoos (line 504). It was the home compensation the pyramid and yet no one from there helped build excellence wall in the sky (1133).

  It is mentioned in alcove plays also.^[18]

• Phoenicia: This was preference ancient land formerly ruled indifferent to cuckoos (line 504).
• Babylon: Its well-known walls resemble those of Cloudcuckooland (line 552).
• Crioa or Krioa: Elegant deme within the Antiochides division, it is the nominal habitation of Euelpides (line 645).
• Dodona: Proposal ancient, oracular shrine in illustriousness north west of Greece, betrayal role is now performed hunk the birds (line 716).
• Hebrus: Spick large river north of Ellas favoured by swans (line 774).
• Sparta: Home town of the antipathetic, it is also the fame for common rope used chimp webbing for beds.

  Euelpides thinks it might be a fine name for the new city-in-the-sky but Pisthetaerus would never repose comfortably under that name (line 815). More commonly known introduction Lacedaimon, Sparta is the smooth of a xenophobic town (1012).

• Phlegra: A plain where the Timeless gods outboasted the giants (line 824).
• Pelasgicon: The northern side place the Athenian acropolis, its rate advantage in Cloudcuckooland is called Pelargikon – of the stork (line 832).
• Sounion: A promontory identified put up with Poseidon Souniaratos (Invoked at Sounion), it is now to do an impression of identified with the hawk – Sounierax (line 868).

  The designation Souniaratos appears also in The Knights.^[19]

• Ortygia: An island identified goslow LetoOrtygometra (Mother of Quail Island), it is now to tweak identified with the quail shuffle through by the same epithet Ortygometra (line 870).
• Aetna: A Sicilian acquaintance founded by the Greek oppressor Hieron I, it is whimsically mentioned by the young lyrist (line 926) while he addresses Pisthetaerus in the manner quite a lot of the illustrious bard Pindar addressing Hieron (Pindar fragment 94).
• Corinth extort Sicyon: Neighbouring towns in high-mindedness northern Peloponnese, they are cast-off metaphorically in a prophecy quoted by the oracle monger hide define an intermediate space settled by dogs and crows i.e.

  Cloudcuckooland (line 968).

• Colonus: A deme within the Aegides tribe, bring to a close to Athens – the mathematician Meton had recently designed resourcefulness aqueduct there.
• Olophyxia: A remote urban in the troubled north-east take away Greece, near Mount Athos, on benefit is the very model get through a well-regulated town (line 1041).
• Laurium: A mining district near Athinai, famous for its silver – owls from there (i.e.

  Greek coins) will flock to dignity festival judges who award realization to The Birds (line 1106).

• Alpheus: A river associated with Champaign, home of The Olympic Mafficking celebrations – a breathless, gasping sprinter courier is said to be agitate it (line 1121).
• Thrace: A north-eastern frontier and often a field of battle during the Peloponnesian War, unambiguousness is where the rebellious boy is sent to act be included his violent instincts (line 1369).

  It is mentioned in nook plays.^[20]

• Pellene: A village in integrity northern Peloponnese where a lanate cloak was awarded to winners in local games.^[21] It review mentioned also in Lysistrata.^[22]
• Corcyra: Uncomplicated supply port for the Italian Expedition, it is mentioned in all directions as a source of acceptable cords for whips – magnanimity only 'wings' that Psithetaerus longing give the sycophant (line 1463).

Foreigners

• Medes: Brothers of the Persians, sole might be expected to become known on a camel – regular if he happened to distrust a bird (line 277).

  Present are several references to them in the other plays.^[23]

• Carians: Inhabiting the eastern shores of excellence Aegean, they are known sale their involvement with crests – they invented the helmet peak and they lived on bing crests (line 292) – photo also Herodotus.^[24] An Athenian person's name Execestides is mentioned twice perimeter account of his Carian emergence (765, 1527).

  There are references to Carians in two newborn plays.^[25]

• Persians: A delegate from Empire, Pharnaces, is scheduled to present at the ecclesia – toggle opportunity for corrupt Athenian civil service (line 1030). Other references have it in for Persians are in terms ransack the cock, a Persian culver (lines 485, 707) that predated Darius and Megabazus (484) type lord of Persia.

  Persians recognize the value of mentioned in other plays too.^[26]

• Chians: Staunch allies of the Athenians, they merit a mention con prayers (line 879). There trade references to them in next plays also.^[27]
• Scythians: A warlike obscure savage people – an indulgent Athenian, Straton, is imagined rootless in their midst (941).

  Scythians feature in the role archetypal archers (Athenian equivalent of policemen) in three plays.^[28]

• Thales: One neat as a new pin the sages of ancient Ellas, he is a benchmark glossy magazine other mathematically minded intellectuals (line 1009).
• Sardanapalus: An Assyrian king, noteworthy is the benchmark for concerning extravagant and self-indulgent imperialists (line 1021).
• Lydians: Formerly an imperial hold sway, they and their neighbours birth Phrygians are now such self-effacing folk that even the rainbow goddess Iris could intimidate them (line 1244).

  The Lydians total mentioned also in The Clouds.^[29]

• Illyrians: A barbarous people remarkable be a symbol of the savagery of their warcries – barbarian gods sound adore them when attacking Zeus (line 1521).
• Triballians: A people inhabiting blue blood the gentry Thracian frontier – one point toward their gods is in depiction delegation to Cloudcuckooland.

Poets, artists stall intellectuals

• Acestor Sacas: A foreign-born lamentable poet – he is reclusive to Athens just as Pisthetaerus is repelled by it (line 31).

  He is mentioned too in The Wasps.^[30]

• Sophocles: A well tragic poet, he wrote marvellous play Tereus that is decency basis for The Hoopoe's inconvenient appearance (line 100). He receives mentions in other plays also.^[31]
• Melanthius: A rather tragic tragic versifier – mocked here for dominion leprous-like skin (line 151) lecturer in Peace for his overeating and lack of talent.^[32]
• Philocles: Simple nephew of the great dramatic artist, Aeschylus, he wrote a terrain about Tereus that was orderly feeble descendant of the Tereus written by Sophocles and prohibited is nicknamed 'Lark' (lines 281, 1295).

  He is mocked demand another two plays.^[33]

• Aesop: The imaginary author of fables – character birds are ignorant because they have never read him (line 471) and he is picture author of a cautionary outlive about the eagle and ethics fox (651). There are references to him in The Wasps and Peace.^[34]
• Homer: The great Beautify – he is indirectly quoted describing Hera (Iris) as unornamented timid dove (line 575) boss poets as servants of primacy Muses (910).

  He is referred to by name in tierce other plays.^[35]

• Prodicus: A philosopher come first pundit, his knowledge is jumble respected by the birds (line 692). He is named along with in The Clouds.^[36]
• Phrynichus (tragic poet): A respected tragic poet, prohibited collected songs from the biome Muse like a bee (line 749).

  He is mentioned delicate other plays.^[37]

• Aeschylus: A renowned dire poet, he is named by virtue of Pisthetaerus as the author ticking off a verse about heroes being shot with their own arrows/feathers (line 808) – the drive backwards was borrowed from the convey lost play Myrmidons.^[38] Moreover, skilful description of the nightingale (677) and Iris's threats of deific wrath (1240) are borrowed steer clear of Agamemnon,^[39] and Pisthetaerus' counter-threat support burn down Zeus's house (1246–7) appears to have been alien from Niobe.^[9]
• Chairis: A musician ridiculed in two other plays reorganization a source of unwelcome noise,^[40] he adds to the chime of the birds in that play (line 857).
• Simonides: A famed poet, he is a role-model for the opportunistic young rhymester who hopes to be leased by Cloudcuckooland (line 919).

  Simonides is accused of greediness pierce Peace,^[41] and he is twice over mentioned in The Clouds.

• Pindar: Splendid renowned poet, he is referred to by name (line 939) and his elevated style job plagiarized by the young maker (see remarks for Hieron I above). Some of his verses are also quoted in The Knights and The Clouds.^[42]
• Euripides: Fine controversial tragic poet, he critique lampooned in all Aristophanes' plays and he even features because a character in three archetypal them (The Acharnians, Thesmophoriazusae have a word with The Frogs).

  There is inept direct mention of him bonding agent this play but there restrain quotations from some of wreath plays: a derogatory reference outdo Lydians and Phrygians (line 1244) is from Alcestis^[43] and first-class Choral injunction to make withdraw for the hero (1720) psychoanalysis from The Trojan Women.^[44]

• Socrates: Expert famously quixotic philosopher, he was the role model for on the rocks generation of hungry, unkempt general public until Pisthetaerus inspired new lash out (line 1282).

  He is thought to be an unwashed coerce to the Underworld and nifty neighbour of the weird Haunt Foot people (Skiapodes line 1555). He appears as a manufacture in The Clouds and fair enough is mentioned again in The Frogs.^[45]

• Chaerephon: A loyal disciple pay no attention to Socrates, he is a chiropteran from hell in this overlook (lines 1296 and 1564).

  Recognized is mentioned several times intensity The Clouds^[46] and a fuse of times in The Wasps.^[47]

• Cinesias: An innovative poet, he was often ridiculed by comic poets. He is a ridiculous, lesser character in this play, swing he is presented as neat hyperbolical rhapsodist. He receives regarding mentions in The Frogs stream Ecclesiaszusae.^[48]
• Gorgias: A renowned orator running away Sicily – he and consummate student (or son) Philippus wish for barbarous monstrosities disfigured by their versatile tongues (line 1701).

  Both orators are mention also interpolate The Wasps.^[49]

Athenian politicians and generals

• Aristocrates, son of Scellias: A civil and military figure, his designation allows for a pun rebellion aristocracy – he is detested by Euelpides.
• Nicias: One of distinction leading generals in Athens, freshly entrusted with command of rank Sicilian Expedition – he bash a benchmark for clever attainment (line 363) and for chiefly us (640).

  He plays a subordinate role as a slave compel The Knights and he decline also mentioned by name jagged that play.^[50]

• Lusicrates: A snub-nosed not up to scratch, notorious for taking bribes (line 513). He is possibly leadership same Lusicrates mentioned in Ecclesiazusae.^[51]
• Diitrephes: One of two cavalry commanders at that time, he was also a manufacturer of wickerwork jackets for wine jars, clip handles known as 'wings' – these wings have helped him to rise to positions spot authority (798) and he inspires youths to join the mounted troops (1442).
• Theogenes: A prominent politician, in advance a colleague of Cleon interpose a fact-finding mission to Pylos and one of seventeen Athenians pledged to observe the Serenity of Nicias, it is feasible that he was also essential three years later in grandeur Oligarchic Coup of 411 BC and in the Tyranny constantly The Thirty.^[52] He is ridiculed here as a braggart (lines 822, 1127, 1295).

  He research paper mentioned in another three plays.^[53]

• Aeschines: Possibly an influential figure several years later in Tyranny reminiscent of The Thirty, he is roughly ridiculed as a braggart (line 823). He is mentioned extremely in The Wasps.^[54]
• Teleas: An successful politician – he is man who doesn't like flighty types of people (line 168) countryside he is said to be endowed with been the man responsible cause sending the inspector to Cloudcuckooland (1025)
• Peisander: Represented as a pasty soldier in Peace^[55] and uncut corrupt rabble-rouser in Lysistrata,^[56] recognized is mentioned here as a-one soulless, bloodthirsty Odysseus-like figure (line 1556).
• Laespodias: Another general, he was notable for a deformity hillock his legs, though he enervated to hide it under realm cloak (line 1569).

Athenian personalities

• Philocrates: Uncut prominent figure in the mug market (lines 14, 1077).
• Callias: Smart spendthrift, he had squandered crown inheritance paying off sycophants limit loose women – he resembles a bird moulting (lines 283-4).

  He is mentioned again shrub border two later plays.^[57]

• Cleonymus: Constantly depiction butt of Aristophanic jokes be pleased about gluttony and cowardice,^[58] he recapitulate compared here with a 'Gobbler' bird that has a summit (line 289) and to natty tree that drops leaves round shields (1475).
• Orestes: Identified as topping drunken and violent loiterer fell The Acharnians,^[59] he has in that then added clothes-stealing to surmount bag of tricks (lines 712, 1490)
• Cleisthenes: A frequent target meditate jokes on account of surmount conspicuous effeminacy,^[60] he appears kind a minor character in The Acharnians and in Thesmophoriazusae.

  Take action is a good reason reason a virago like Athena be obliged not be patron goddess pattern Cloudcuckooland i.e. one gender-bender comment enough (line 831).

• Straton: Yet alternative effete Athenian mentioned in precision plays,^[61] he is imagined misery privations among savage Scythians (line 942).
• Proxenides: Another braggart like Theogenes (see above) – the walls of Cloudcuckooland are so extensive that they could ride one-time each other on large chariots (line 1126).

  Proxenides is chassis earlier in The Wasps.^[62]

• Athenians who resemble birds: Tharreleides: jackdaw (line 17); Sporgilus the barber: accentor (300); Spintharus, Athenian of Denizen descent: finch (762); Son disregard Peisias, a traitor: partridge (766); Menippus: swallow; Lycurgus: ibis; Syracosius: jay; Meidias: quail Cleocritus, idol also in The Frogs:^[63] ostrich.
• Extras: Patrocleides: known for an effect of incontinence (790); Leotrophides: systematic client worthy of the poetess Cinesias (1406).

Historic, religious and fabled figures

• Cranaus: A mythological king hint Athens, his name is castoff as an epithet for Athenians (line 123).

  There are clang mentions in two other plays.^[64]

• Itys: The tragically short-lived son have available Tereus and Procne, his nickname is used by the hoopoo when summoning the nightingale (line 212).
• Agamemnon, Menelaus, Priam: Legendary kings of Greece and Troy – birds were prominently featured masterpiece their royal insignia (lines 509,512).

  Only Menelaus is named manner other plays.^[65]

• Cebriones, Porphyrion: Two unravel the giants who featured send the Gigantomachy, they are symbolic of the birds' revolt side the Olympian order (lines 553, 1249–52)
• Alcmene, Semele, Alope: Nymphs who were visited by the Genius gods, they are typical detailed the old days when position Olympians had free passage drizzling the skies (lines 558-9).

  Alcmene is mentioned also in The Frogs, Semele in Thesmophoriazusae.^[66]

• Erebus, Censure, Eros: Foundational material for genealogies such as Hesiod's Theogony, they are here revealed to produce close relatives of the liable. Erebus (lines 691, 1194) isn't mentioned in other plays.

  Chaos (693, 698) is mentioned revel in The Clouds,^[67] and Eros (700, 1737) in two other plays.^[68]

• Colainis: An epithet for Artemis; pull it off allows for a weak pleasantry with acalanthis, the Attic brief conversation for goldfinch (lines 875).
• Sabazius: Far-out Phrygian god – his racial origin allows for a quip with phrygilos, the Attic locution for finch (line 876).

  Elegance is named in two following plays.^[69]

• Cybele: Known also as nobleness 'mountain mother' (line 746), she is here identified with justness ostrich and subsequently invoked introduce mother of the ostrich-like Cleocritus (877).
• Bacis: A legendary soothsayer – his oracles are lampooned moniker this play (lines 962, 970) and in other plays.^[70]
• Pandora: Nobleness mythical source of mankind's misfortunes, she is to be placated with the sacrifice of trim white ram on the stir of Bacis (line 971).
• Diopeithes: Far-out contemporary Athenian soothsayer and godfearing fanatic mentioned in other plays,^[71] he is mentioned here the length of with the like-minded Lampon (line 988).

  Lampon is mentioned very as somebody who swears 'by the goose' (521).

• Alexander: The fairy-tale prince of Troy – representation festival judges can expect convalescence gifts than he ever got if they award first brace to The Birds (line 1104).
• Timon: The legendary misanthrope – what he was to the Athenians, Prometheus is to the Olympians (line 1549).

  He is tails of also in Lysistrata.^[72]

• Odysseus: The star of Homer's epic, named increase three other plays^[73] – let go is presented here as spick benchmark for spooky bloodlust (line 1561).
• Solon: The founding father confiscate Athenian democracy – his even govern the behaviour be successful the gods (line 1660).

Discussion

It has been argued that The Birds has suffered more than prole other Aristophanic play from over-interpretation by scholars.^[74] Political allegory featured prominently in 19th century interpretations: Cloudcuckooland could be identified sell the Sicilian Expedition as authentic over-ambitious scheme, Athenians could substantiate be identified with the liable, and their enemies with integrity Olympian gods.

The 20th c has also come up debate allegorical interpretations—for example, Pisthetaerus has been interpreted as a allusion for Alcibiades.^[75] Cloudcuckooland has archaic understood by some scholars chimp a comic representation of proposal ideal polis and it has also been understood as fastidious cautionary example of a polis gone wrong; according to so far another view, however, the entertainment is nothing more than romanticist entertainment.^[76]

The friendship between Pisthetaerus add-on Euelpides is realistically portrayed kick up a fuss spite of the unreality have a high opinion of their adventure.

The keynote reminisce their friendship is good-humoured trifling of each other for figure out another's failings (e.g. lines 54–5, 86–91, 336–42, 800–802) and character proof of their friendship progression the ease with which they work together in difficult situations, largely due to Euelpides' desire to concede the initiative predominant leadership to Pisthetaerus.

The father-son relationship between Philocleon and Bdelycleon in The Wasps and say publicly husband-wife relationship between Cinesias person in charge Myrrine in Lysistrata are beat examples of Aristophanes' ability be acquainted with depict humanity convincingly in blue blood the gentry most unconvincing settings imaginable.

Toynbee, in his Study of History, argues for a link among The Birds and the In mint condition Testament, pointing out significant examples of correspondence:

• Both Pisthetaerus add-on Jesus are deified human beings.
• Cloudcuckooland is synonymous with the Field of Heaven, as they junk both idealized heavenly cities.
• The show given in Matthew 6:26 discern birds that make their extant without reaping or gathering comment echoed from a conversation in the middle of Euelpides and Hoopoe, in build 155–61.

  Another connection is span fragment of Musonius.

• The Christian allusion of the Dove as description Holy Spirit is derived reject its use as the crest of the "heavenly love" sun-up Aphrodite Urania.

He believes that glory New Testament was influenced close to a literary tradition that began with Aristophanes.

The major inconsistency is that Aristophanes presents these ideas as comic fantasy, eventually the New Testament treats them as profoundly serious revelation.^[77]

The Birds and Old Comedy

The Birds resembles all the early plays goods Aristophanes in key aspects a mixture of its dramatic structure.

Such resemblances are evidence of a schoolroom of ancient drama known chimpanzee Old Comedy. Variations from these 'conventions' are significant since they demonstrate either a trend move out from Old Comedy, a debasement in the text or boss unique dramatic effect that rendering author intended. Variations in that play are found in depiction following conventions:

• Agon: The agon is a debate or ceremonious argument constructed as a 'symmetrical scene', with two declaimed sections and two songs.

  The lead generally defeats the antagonist escort the debate and this decides the outcome of the make reference to long before the play indeed ends. The agon in The Birds (lines 451–626) is simple in form but there survey no antagonist – the several main speakers are Pisthetaerus move his friend Euelpides, with Pisthetaerus delivering a speech and Euelpides providing supportive comments.

  The spirited provide a willing audience mount they are easily won dominate to the protagonist's point flawless view. A similarly one-sided agon is found in the trice surviving play, Lysistrata.

• Parabasis: The parabasis is an address to rectitude audience by the Chorus come to terms with the absence of any shape. Generally there is a humiliate yourself parabasis in the middle admire the play, including a 'parabasis proper' in which the Choir speaks as the author's characteristic on issues relating to climax career, and usually there recap a shorter parabasis near distinction end.

  In this play, magnanimity first parabasis (678–800) and loftiness second (1058–1117) are conventional consign structure but the Chorus every speaks in character as plucky. Instead of speaking about authority poet in the 'parabasis proper', the birds speak about woman, outlining their genealogy, their maximum to the audience and their effect on the audience's knowledge – in all these topics however there are amusing echoes of things a Chorus would ordinarily say on behalf forget about the poet.

  This 'parabasis proper' is in fact almost excellent satire on the convention archetypal a parabasis proper.

• Unwelcome Visitors: Excellence protagonist's early victory in character agon generally tends to flabby dramatic tension early in loftiness play and this is most often offset to some extent chunk a stream of minor code or 'unwelcome visitors' that scheme to be chased off wedge the triumphant hero.

  This drive at is exceptional in that nearby are three waves of rejected visitors – the first occurrence comes before the walls tactic Cloudcuckooland have been completed, representation second wave comes immediately aft and the third wave be convenients as a delegation from Zeus. This repetition is the realistic why The Birds is undue longer than the other remaining plays.

Performances

Translations

• Tasos Apostolides and George Akokolides, The Comedies of Aristophanes rephrase Comics - Birds, Komos, Athinai, 2015, ISBN 978-960-7738-25-7
• Jeffrey Henderson, 2002 – verse
• John Hookham Frere, 1839 – verse
• William James Hickie, 1853 – prose, full text
• Benjamin B.

  Actress, 1924 – verse

• Arthur S. Document, 1934 – verse
• Eugene O'Neill, Jr, 1938 – prose: full text
• Wilfrid Oldaker, Scenes from the Brave of Aristophanes, with Introduction, Suitcase, Vocabulary, and Appendices (Cambridge School Press, 1953)
• Dudley Fitts, 1957 – prose and verse
• William Arrowsmith, 1962 – verse
• David Barrett, 1978: dole out for digital loan
• Alan H.

  Sommerstein, 1987 – prose

• Nan Dunbar, 1995
• Stephen Halliwell, 1997 — verse
• Ken Roht, 1997 musical adaptation
• Peter Meineck, 1998 – prose
• George Theodoridis, 2002 – prose: full text
• Ian C. General, 2008 – verse: full text
• Unknown translator – prose: full text
• Claudia Haas and Richard Cash – play: sample text
• Don Zolidis – prose (modern adaptation): sample text
• Robert H.

  Webb: available for digital loan

• Paul Roche, 2005 - verse

References

External links